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https://phys.org/.../2021-04-humans-apex-predators....
The evolution of the human trophic level during the Pleistocene
Miki Ben-Dor,Raphael Sirtoli,Ran Barkai
First published: 05 March 2021 https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.24247Citations: 3
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Abstract
The human trophic level (HTL) during the Pleistocene and its degree of variability serve, explicitly or tacitly, as the basis of many explanations for human evolution, behavior, and culture. Previous attempts to reconstruct the HTL have relied heavily on an analogy with recent hunter-gatherer groups' diets. In addition to technological differences, recent findings of substantial ecological differences between the Pleistocene and the Anthropocene cast doubt regarding that analogy's validity. Surprisingly little systematic evolution-guided evidence served to reconstruct HTL. Here, we reconstruct the HTL during the Pleistocene by reviewing evidence for the impact of the HTL on the biological, ecological, and behavioral systems derived from various existing studies. We adapt a paleobiological and paleoecological approach, including evidence from human physiology and genetics, archaeology, paleontology, and zoology, and identified 25 sources of evidence in total. The evidence shows that the trophic level of the Homo lineage that most probably led to modern humans evolved from a low base to a high, carnivorous position during the Pleistocene, beginning with Homo habilis and peaking in Homo erectus. A reversal of that trend appears in the Upper Paleolithic, strengthening in the Mesolithic/Epipaleolithic and Neolithic, and culminating with the advent of agriculture. We conclude that it is possible to reach a credible reconstruction of the HTL without relying on a simple analogy with recent hunter-gatherers' diets. The memory of an adaptation to a trophic level that is embedded in modern humans' biology in the form of genetics, metabolism, and morphology is a fruitful line of investigation of past HTLs, whose potential we have only started to explore.
1 INTRODUCTION
“The first task of the prehistorian must be to decide which trophic level the population he is studying occupied” (Wilkinson, 2014, p. 544).
Despite Wilkinson's advice, few researchers referred to past human food consumption in terms of a “trophic level.” This tendency may stem from the perception of humans as the ultimate omnivore, generalist, flexible creatures, capable of adapting their trophic level at short notice to meet variable local ecological conditions. Some even consider acquiring these capabilities as the core of human evolution, including increased brain size (Potts, 1998; R. W. Wrangham et al., 1999).
By seeking a “trophic level,” we examine the possibility that unlike 20th-century hunter-gatherers (HG), Paleolithic humans may not have been as flexible in the selection of plant or animal-sourced foods during the Pleistocene as one would infer from an examination of the ethnographic record.
Perception of humans' dietary flexibility regarding plant and animal-sourced foods during the Pleistocene (2,580,000–11,700 years ago) receives much support from analogy with 20th century HG's varied diets. The difference in preservation potential between plants and animals in archaeological assemblages has led to the wide use of ethnography in the reconstruction of Paleolithic diets (Cordain et al., 2000; Crittenden & Schnorr, 2017; Eaton & Konner, 1985; Konner & Eaton, 2010; Kuipers et al., 2012; Kuipers et al., 2010; Lee, 1968; F. W. Marlowe, 2005; Stahl et al., 1984; Ströhle & Hahn, 2011). All of the reconstructions present a picture of HG as flexible in their trophic level, depending largely on local ecologies. However, the varied diets of 20th century HG may result from post-Paleolithic technological and physiological adaptations to Anthropocene ecological conditions that are non-analogous to the conditions that humans experienced during most of the Pleistocene. In fact, with a markedly lower abundance of megafauna and with technological features like the use of dogs, bows and arrows, iron, and contact with neighboring herders and farmers, one would expect 20th century HG to be more analogous in terms of dietary patterns to their probable ancestors of the terminal and post-Paleolithic humans rather than to Lower, Middle and even Early Upper Paleolithic humans (Ben-Dor & Barkai, 2020a; Faith et al., 2019).
